Linum usitatissimum - Common Flax

Family: Linaceae (Flax family) ^[E-flora]

• General: "Annual herb from a taproot; stems erect, solitary, simple or branched, 30-50 cm tall. " [IFBC-E-flora]
• Leaves: "Stem leaves alternate, linear-lanceolate, 3-veined at least 1/2 their length, 1-2.5 cm long. " [IFBC-E-flora]
• Flowers: "Inflorescence of saucer-shaped flowers in a terminal loose cluster on stalks 20-25 mm long; petals pale blue, rarely white, 10-14 mm long; sepals tapering to a narrow tip, 5-7 mm long, the innermost wider and minutely hairy on the margins. " [IFBC-E-flora]
• Fruits: "Capsules, 10-14 mm long; seeds 3.5-4.5 mm long with a short, blunt beak." [IFBC-E-flora]

Habitat / Range "Mesic to dry roadsides, fields and waste places in the lowland zone; rare on SE Vancouver Island, the Queen Charlotte Islands, and the lower mainland; introduced from Eurasia." [IFBC-E-flora]

Hazards

• Cyanogenic glycosides: "The seed of some strains contain cyanogenic glycosides in the seed though the toxicity is low, especially if the seed is eaten slowly. It becomes more toxic if water is drunk at the same time[76, 222]. The cyanogenic glycosides are also present in other parts of the plant and have caused poisoning to livestock[240]." [PFAF]
• Contraindications: "Contraindicated with a stricture of the oesophagus in no bowel movement conditions and acute gut inflammatory diseases. Contraindicated in pregnancy. Some suggestion it should be avoided with prostate gland diseases [301]." [PFAF]

Along with barley, flax is the oldest known food (Zohary and Hopf,2000), although in the Bible, it is mentioned only in connection with linen, the fabric produced from the strong fibers in the stem. It is an annual with sky blue flowers. To obtain the fibers, the flax is soaked in water until a kind of controlled decay, termed retting, releases the fibers from the softer surrounding tissues. The fibers are then washed and dried. Alternatively, the bundled stems can be allowed to ret with moisture from dew. Although flax was a well-known crop in ancient times (e.g., Abbo et al.,2009)it is no longer commercially planted in the Levant. [BiblePlants]

Edible Uses

• Seed
• "Seed - raw or cooked[61]. The seed contains 30 - 40% oil, which comprises mainly linoleic and linolenic acids[238]. The seed also contains cyanogenic glycosides (prussic acid). In small quantities these glycosides stimulate respiration and improve digestion, but in excess can cause respiratory failure and death[238]. Cultivars low in these glycosides have been developed and large quantities of the seed would need to be eaten to achieve a harmful dose. The seed is used in breads and cereals, it can also be sprouted and used in salads[183]. The seed is hard to digest and provokes flatulence[4]. A nutritional analysis is available[218]. The roasted seed is said to be a coffee substitute[183]. A herbal tea can be brewed from the seed[183]. An edible oil is obtained from the seed[183, 269], though it needs to be properly refined before it can be eaten. Some caution is advised in the use of the seeds for food since some varieties of this plant contain toxins." [PFAF]

Other Uses

• Fibre
• Linen, the fabric produced by flax, is strong, durable, and cool. Linen was prescribed for the garments of the priests (Leviticus 13, Ezekiel 44). It was the only available fabric other than wool and is mentioned more than 100 times in the Bible. Especially valued was the high-quality linen from Egypt known as byssus(Isaiah 19).[BiblePlants]
• "A fibre is obtained from the stem[6, 7, 13, 57, 89]. It is of very high quality and is used in making cloth, sails, nets, paper, insulating material etc. The best quality flax fibre is used for making cloth. It is soft, lustrous and flexible, although not so flexible or elastic as cotton or wool[269].. It is stronger than cotton, rayon or wool, but weaker than ramie[269]. Lower quality fibre is used in manufacturing of towelling, matting, rugs, twines, canvas, bags, and for quality papers such as printing currency notes[269]. The plant is harvested just after it flowers[115]. The yield is 0.5 to 0.9 tonnes of fibre per hectare. When used for paper making, the stems are harvested in late summer or autumn when they are two thirds yellow and are then retted[189]. The fibre is then stripped from the stem, cooked for two hours or more with lye and then beaten in a Hollander beater[189]. The lower quality flax straw from seed flax varieties is used in the manufacture of upholstery tow, insulating material, rugs, twine, and paper. Some of the better quality straw is used in the manufacture of cigarette and other high-grade papers[269]." [PFAF]
• Oil
• "The seed contains 38 - 40% of a drying oil[141]. It has a very wide range of applications. The paint and varnish industries consume about 80% of all the linseed oil produced. The remainder is used in items such as furniture polish, enamels, linoleum, oilcloth, printer's inks, soap making and patent leather[46, 57, 169, 244, 269]. It is also used as a wood preservative and as a waterproofing for raincoats, slickers, and tarpaulins[269]. The oil is also used in a spray on concrete roads to prevent ice and snow from sticking - it has the additional benefit of helping to preserve the concrete and prevent surface cracking and wear[269]. Yields of over 4 tonnes of seed per hectare have been recorded in N. America, but yields of 2 tonnes or less are more common[269]. A mucilage from the soaked or boiled seeds is used as a size for linen warps[169]." [PFAF]

Medicinal Uses

• Oil: "Linseed has a long history of medicinal use, its main effects being as a laxative and expectorant that soothes irritated tissues, controls coughing and relieves pain[238]. The seed, or the oil from the seed are normally used[238]. The seed is analgesic, demulcent, emollient, laxative, pectoral and resolvent[4, 9, 21, 46, 165, 218, 240]. The crushed seed makes a very useful poultice in the treatment of ulceration, abscesses and deep-seated inflammations[4, 244]. An infusion of the seed contains a good deal of mucilage and is a valuable domestic remedy for coughs, colds and inflammation of the urinary organs[4]. If the seed is bruised and then eaten straight away, it will swell considerably in the digestive tract and stimulate peristalsis[9] and so is used in the treatment of chronic constipation[238]. The oil in the seed contains 4% L-glutamic acid, which is used to treat mental deficiencies in adults[218]. It also has soothing and lubricating properties, and is used in medicines to soothe tonsillitis, sore throats, coughs, colds, constipation, gravel and stones[4, 244]. When mixed with an equal quantity of lime water it is used to treat burns and scalds[244]."
• Bark & Leaves: "The bark and the leaves are used in the treatment of gonorrhoea[240]."
• Flowers: "The flowers are cardiotonic and nervine[240]. The plant has a long history of folk use in the treatment of cancer[218]. It has been found to contain various anticancer agents[218]. The German Commission E Monographs, a therapeutic guide to herbal medicine, approve Linum usitatissimum for constipation, inflammation of the skin (see [302] for critics of commission E)."

Composition

Figures in grams (g) or miligrams (mg) per 100g of food. Seed (Fresh weight)

• 498 Calories per 100g
• Water : 6.5%
• Protein: 19g; Fat: 35.5g; Carbohydrate: 35.4g; Fibre: 6.8g; *Ash: 3.5g;
• Minerals - Calcium: 220mg; Phosphorus: 415mg; Iron: 23mg; Magnesium: 0mg; Sodium: 0mg; Potassium: 0mg; Zinc: 0mg;
• Vitamins - A: 0.03mg; Thiamine (B1): 0.17mg; Riboflavin (B2): 0.16mg; Niacin: 1.4mg; B6: 0mg; C: 0mg;
• Reference: [ 218]

Notes: "The figures given here are the median of a range given in the report. Iron had an especially large range, from 2.7 - 43.8." [PFAF]

Cultivation

"Prefers a light well-drained moderately fertile humus-rich soil in a sunny sheltered position[200]. Plants grow best in a well-drained, loamy soil, those overlying a clay subsoil produce the best results[269]. They prefer a pH in the range of 5 - 7[269]. Very light highly fertile soils are not desirable as they produce tall rank growth tending to lodge[269]. Plants are more sensitive to salt than most field crops[269]. Prefers a cool moist climate during the growing season, dry weather making the plants short and woody[61, 269]. A very greedy plant, depleting the soil[4, 123] and requiring a rich, well prepared soil if it is to do well[123]. Plants help to break up organic matter and prepare the soil for following crops[201]. Cultivars selected for seed production succeed under a fairly wide range of conditions, but those selected for fibre production require abundant moisture and cool weather during the growing season, and warm dry weather during harvesting, especially where water-retting is practiced[269]. The crop requires 15 - 20cm of rainfall if spread evenly over growing season, with 2.5 cm falling just before or after planting[269]. The plant needs a relatively long ripening period between flowering and harvesting. Warm, dry weather is desirable at the heading stage to cause plants to branch and produce seed; after vegetative growth, dry weather is required for curing the seed[269]. Linseed has a very long history of cultivation in temperate climates with evidence to show that it was being grown in Egypt over 5,000 years ago[269]. It fell into almost complete disuse in Britain in the 20th century as artificial fibres were increasingly used, but it is once again coming into prominence both as a fibre and as an oilseed crop(1995)[K]. Linseed is grown for its edible seed, the oil from the seed and for the fibres obtained from the stems[46]. There are many named varieties, though these usually fall within with two classes. One class, generally known as flax, does not branch much and is grown mainly for the fibre in its stem, whilst the other class, known as linseed, branches much more freely and is grown mainly for its seed. Although classified as a species, linseed is possibly an ancient cultigen derived in cultivation from L. bienne[17, 238]. Flax crops take 3 - 4 months to reach maturity, though autumn or early spring sown crops can take 6 - 7 months[269]. Lolium specis (Rye grasses) and Phleum species (Timothy grass) have allelopathic effects on Linum, reducing its carbohydrate synthesis[269]. Linseed is a good companion plant for potatoes and carrots but is inhibited by Camelina sativa[18, 20]." [PFAF]

Linum Sp - Flax

Local Species;

1. Linum bienne - pale flax ^[E-flora]
2. Linum catharticum - Fairy flax ^[E-flora]
3. Linum lewisii ssp lewisii - western blue flax ^[E-flora]
4. Linum usitatissimum - Common flax ^[E-flora]

Habitat/Range

L. bienne; "Mesic fields in the lowland zone; rare in SW BC; introduced from Europe." [IFBC-E-flora] Status: Exotic [E-flora]

L. catharticum; "Newly established exotic in BC" [E-flora] Status: Exotic [E-flora]

L. lewisii ssp lewisii; "Mesic to dry meadows and forest openings from the lowland and steppe to subalpine zones; frequent in SC and NE BC, less frequent in SW and SE BC; N to AK, YT and NT, E to PQ and S to NM, AZ, CA and MX." Status: Native [E-flora]

Key

• 1. Plants perennials; sepals rounded at the tips, not fringed; leaves linear, 3-veined only at the bases...........................L. lewisiissp. lewisii
• 1. Plants annuals, biennials or perennials; sepals tapered to narrow points, inner ones usually fringed; leaves linear-lanceolate, 3 veined at least 1/2 their length.
• 2. Plants annuals; flower stalks 20-25 mm long; petals 10-14 mm long; capsules 10-14 mm long, or more; seeds with a short, blunt beak..........................L. usitatissimum
• 2. Plants biennials, or perennials; flowers stalks 5-18 mm long; petals 8-10 mm long; capsules 5-6 mm long; seeds beakless.............................L. bienne

Hazards

• L. catharticum; "Poisonous in large doses[21]." [PFAF]

Food Use

• Seed
  • L. lewisii; "The seeds of the wild blue flax were gathered and used in cookery both because of their highly nutritive value and for the agreeable flavor which they added to that with which they were cooked." [EWP]

Othere Use

• Fibre
• L. bienne; "A fibre obtained from the stem is used to make cloth[6, 74]." [PFAF]

Medicinal Use

• Plant:
• L. catharticum; "Purging flax was often used in the past as a gentle laxative, and also for the treatment of muscular rheumatism, liver complaints, jaundice and catarrhal problems[4, 244], though it is seldom used in modern herbalism[244]. " [PFAF]
• Activities: L. catharticum; "The whole herb is anthelmintic, diuretic, emetic and purgative[4, 9, 21, 46]. It is harvested in the summer as it comes into flower and can be dried for later use[4]. When used as a purgative it is generally taken with a carminative such as peppermint[4]. " [PFAF]
• Homeopathic: L. catharticum; "A homeopathic remedy is made from the plant. It is used in the treatment of bronchitis, piles and amenorrhoea[9]." [PFAF]

References

• [E-flora] In Klinkenberg, Brian. (Editor) 2017. E-Flora BC: Electronic Atlas of the Plants of British Columbia [eflora.bc.ca]. Lab for Advanced Spatial Analysis, Department of Geography, University of British Columbia, Vancouver.
• http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Linum%20bienne&redblue=Both&lifeform=7, Accessed Feb 13, 2019
• http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Linum%20catharticum&redblue=Both&lifeform=7, Accessed Feb 13, 2019
• http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Linum%20lewisii&redblue=Both&lifeform=7, Accessed Feb 13, 2019
• http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Linum%20usitatissimum&redblue=Both&lifeform=7, Accessed Feb 13, 2019
• [PFAF]
• https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Linum+bienne, Accessed Feb 13, 2019
• https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Linum+catharticum, Accessed Feb 13, 2019
• https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Linum+usitatissimum, Accessed Feb 13, 2019